The notion of close reading of secondary discourse (literature, written texts, images) is often problematic for students, who first have to decode the text and then apply a panoply of critical approaches to it (Moore 1997). The addition of other unfamiliar elements such as the historical, biographical, and satirical—all difficult and foreign subjects—is often frustrating and ultimately an unsuccessful interpretative proposition for both teachers and students.
The wealth of information from which to choose is overwhelming. Understanding the difficult concept of satire, for example, calls forth the idea of ironic understanding (Egan 2008)—an imaginative process that tests the very limits of even the most conscientious students, who must first understand historical context and then must unpack humor to even begin to analyze writing with a bite.
The analysis of classical satirical texts such as Swift's "A Modest Proposal," often conjures for students literal modes. "The babies aren't really being eaten?" and even with careful scaffolding leads many students into "I still don't get it" territory.
Teachers will be surprised, however, when they ask their students to "read images" (film, pictures, cartoons). According to Rafael Malach, a professor of brain research, seeing becomes more of "a subjective and creative act." Malach suggests "as a reader, we don't simply see an image—we take in a range of data, including shapes or patterns, colors and motion across a series of sequential images" (as cited in Apkon, p. 77).
Visual literacy, then, uncovers for students a wide range of interpretive and narrative modes, which, when applied to political cartoons, for example, allows for lenses of multidisciplinary: an approach to analyzing texts using methods of research in such varied disciplines as rhetoric, history, film studies, literary analysis, and so forth.
One particular technique to apply to still images such as political cartoons is the rule of thirds, often found in film studies. For example, if one divides a frame into a series of nine equal boxes (two horizontal and two vertical lines), the eyes are "naturally drawn to intersecting points" (Apkon p. 184) in the image. Talking with students about these intersecting points and using the rule of thirds becomes an assisted invitation to aid them in finding ways to begin to analyze and interpret visual texts. Additionally, students can go onto discuss line, color, and the blocking of a visual texts—those elements that seemingly create motion.
Patricia Edwards, a professor at Michigan State, in an International Reading Association Address, stated: "Perhaps one of the first steps for expanding of literacy would be to start with visual literacy. . . Therefore, we must expand our notion of literacy beyond reading and writing printed text to include interpreting visual and digital texts. . . Teachers will help students empower themselves with the necessary tools to thrive in increasingly media varied environments" (221). In an ever increasing visual, multi-media world, the need for this is even more apparent.
As our students begin naturally to deconstruct (dismantle and take apart) obviously constructed elements of visual texts such as political cartoons, even without knowledge of contextual tools and historical clues, they can begin the process of analysis interpretation. A teacher can help to scaffold their understanding by slowly adding on more formal and difficult elements such as traditional textual analysis, and even satire, allowing for "oh, now I see" moments and deeper insights into the meaning of the text.
Example Analysis One
Originally published on December 15, 1983, this Kennedy political cartoon depicts Arkansas First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton and the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee Report concerning new educational standards issued for the state’s K-12 educational system.
Early in his second term, Governor Bill Clinton called for a new educational task force to evaluate the state's educational system and to make recommendations for reform. One created by the legislature, he appointed the First Lady as the chair of the new Arkansas Educational Standards Committee.
Under her leadership, the new committee met with teachers, students, parents, and community leaders to gather advice for new educational state standards.
As this was a controversial role for a first lady of Arkansas, Hillary Clinton was under immense pressure to "perform." The Committee's Report was released in the fall of 1983 and was well received statewide.
The Kennedy cartoon references this strong public reception. Based on Arkansas’s long love affair with Razorback football, the cartoon uses the icons of the game to illustrate this political moment. The First Lady is depicted on the left hand side of the panel, wearing a classic football uniform. In front of her, the shadowed opposing team represents her opposition.
A large goal post labeled, “New Edu. Standards,” is a direct reference to the state’s educational bar-setting goals. The Clinton figure is drawn with leg fully extended to kick “the report” over the bar. The reader’s eye follows the extended leg through the path of the ball, represented by the series of dashes. These dashes, labeled “H. Clinton Comm. Report,” arc high through the air, as the football (the report) sails through the goal posts for a score.
The referee, labeled as John Q, refers to the Arkansas public. His arms, extended to full height, back arched excessively, declares the report a “score” for the state. This suggests the public’s strong support and advocacy for the proposed changes to the Arkansas’ public school system.
The classic football phrase "Good!" noting a score for the team is brought to the forefront of the reader's mind.
Example Analysis Two
This political cartoon penned by Jon Kennedy in 1963 depicts then-sitting Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus in safari big game hunting gear standing beneath a row of mounted deer heads: labeled 1st Term, 2nd Term, 3rd Term and 4th Term."
In this cartoon, Faubus is standing in the great room of the Governor's mansion presumably at the beginning of hunting season in Arkansas. His hunt, his trophy, is securing another term, portrayed as a kind of trophy head to collect and mount on his wall.
He stands with his eyes closed and talks out of the corner of his mouth to his butler: "Better Clear Me Another Space," he says alluding to the wall and a 5th-term win.
The gun that he carries over his shoulder is roughly his size. Clearly, he sees politics as blood sport, hunting for votes, and the upcoming election as one that can be stalked and captured.
The 1957 civil rights crisis involving the Central High School and Faubus' decision to bar nine African American students from entering the high school was a difficult decision for him; however, it was widely believed to have been a decision made not out of moral or ethical integrity but out of mostly political motives. He knew that taking a segregationist stand would likely ensure re-election, which it did.
Although Faubus was convinced that Little Rock might erupt in violence after the desegregation battles, he also clearly had a keen eye and his sites set on yet another term.
Particularly, in this time of hard fought political elections, this political cartoon is most apt. Political metaphors are abound and hunting is apt as war.
Apkon, S. (2013). The Age of The Image: Redefining Literacy In A World of Screens. New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux.
Egan, K. (2008). The Future of Education: Reimagining Our Schools from the Ground. New Haven: The University Press.
Moore, J. (1997). Interpreting Young Adult Literature: Literary Theory in the Secondary Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Boyton/Cook Publishers.
J. Bradley Minnick, Ph. D., is an Associate Professor of English Education at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock. For 30 years, he's helped teachers and students engage in best literacy practices. He is the writer, host and executive producer of Arts & Letters, a radio program on KUAR that highlights artistic and intellectual work in the South and beyond.