Introduction

Although the Civil War officially ended in 1865, tensions, conflicts, and fighting were not over for years and even decades afterward. In Arkansas, shortly after the war, Radical Republicans, who advocated voting rights for African American men and restrictions against former Confederates’ voting rights, clashed with former Confederates and their sympathizers. The latter group opposed civil rights for African Americans and was determined to protect the racial privileges of white men, especially those who supported the Confederacy. 

After the new state constitution of 1868 was ratified and Powell Clayton, a former Democrat but now one of the co-founders of the Republican Party in Arkansas, was elected to serve as Arkansas governor, former Confederates and their sympathizers were furious. Among many provisions, the new constitution declared racial discrimination illegal, and Clayton enjoyed the support of Radical Republicans. 

In April 1868, only one month after black Arkansas men voted for the first time, the Ku Klux Klan emerged and became active in Arkansas. Across the state, the Klan terrorized black Arkansans and white Republicans. In July 1868, the state legislature approved the creation of a state guard and reserve armed groups. Governor Clayton ordered several counties to create and prepare armed military-style forces. Their task was to stop the Klan and protect the rights of newly freed African Americans as well as the safety of Republicans and their supporters. In several counties, tensions between those local military forces and the Klan got so severe that Governor Clayton declared martial law in those areas and divided the state into four military districts. Historians refer to the conflicts that erupted across the state in the aftermath of the ratification of the 1868 Constitution as Militia Wars of 1868–1869.

Governor Clayton selected Daniel Phillips Upham from Woodroof Country to command the northeast military district. In this activity, you will examine a letter that Upham wrote to his brother Henry between November 6 and November 8, 1868. In it, Upham discusses the ongoing violence against African Americans and white Republicans.

*Important vocabulary note: The document used in this activity, includes the term “negro” to refer to an African American. Today, this term is considered offensive and disrespectful. Until the 1960s, however, it was used as a descriptive (neutral or non-offensive) term that both black and white Americans used to refer to African Americans. Historical documents often include words that we consider offensive and disrespectful today. It is important that we study how language changes and remember that words, just like actions, are often used to harm or belittle individuals or entire groups. History helps us understand why words matter.